Battle of Kadesh: Egyptians, Hittites Fight to Bloody Draw

Today in Military History – May 12, 1274 BC In the thirteenth century before the Christian Era, the two major superpowers of the Middle East were New Kingdom Egypt and the Hittite Empire of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). Each nation was eager to expand and dominate their neighbors. In the third decade of that century, the two empires collided on the plains of Syria. This conflict provided modern historians the first battle of ancient times with an extensive account of the armies, the tactics and the outcome. This is the battle of Kadesh… Background to the Battle Three hundred years before this battle, Egypt expelled the first major invaders to subdue their civilization; these were the Hyksos, a mysterious nomadic people from the Middle East. One of the few things that the Egyptian adopted from them was the war chariot, a mobile battle platform that revolutionized how the pharaohs waged war. By 1300 BC, the Egyptians had developed a light, two-man chariot that was the tank of its time period. With the assistance of this innovative machine, the Egyptians pushed their empire to into modern-day eastern Libya, northern Sudan, Israel, Lebanon and western Syria. In expanding into Syria, however, they collided with the Hittite Empire. The Hittites were a Mediterranean people that spoke an Indo-European language. Their origins are shrouded in mystery, either from the Balkans or the area of the Black or Caspian seas. Archaeological studies reveal evidence of their civilization as far back as the eighteenth century BC. From that time until 1300 BC, the Hittites conquered most of Asia Minor, eastern Mesopotamia, and northern Syria. They were one of the first people to discover the method for properly smelting iron, ushering in the Early Iron Age. (They apparently did *not* use iron for much more than luxury goods, due to the scarcity of iron ore.) The Hittites were strong enough to sack the city of Babylon in about 1531 BC, carrying off an idol of the Babylonian god Marduk, their chief diety. It was only a matter of time before the Hittites encountered Egypt. Between 1290 and 1279, Egyptian Pharaoh Seti I began expanding into Syria, conquering the city-states of Amurru and Kadesh, both of whom were vassals of the Hittites. In effect, this was a declaration of war against the Hittites. After Seti’s death, his son Ramesses II sought to continue his father’s conquests. In the spring of 1274, Ramesses learned that Amurru and Kadesh had revolted and returned to the Hittite orbit. Gathering an army, he marched through Palestine into Syria, intent on re-acquiring the two areas for his empire. At the same time, a Hittite army was approaching from the north, equally intent on keeping their property. Today’s Historical Lecture: The Armies of Egyptian and the Hittite Empires Units of Egyptian, allied or vassal javelinmen would precede the main foot contingents. An Egyptian army also had several units of bow-armed men, mostly Nubians, showering the enemy with a great volume of arrow prior to contact. The main infantry units of an Egyptian army would have several options. Spear-armed soldiers with wooden shields covered in oxhide, with an axe or sword as a sidearm, were the most likely make-up of a pharaonic army. Another likely inclusion was contingents of axe-armed soldiers, swinging their bronze axes two-handed with a shield slung on the back. In addition, the Egyptians employed some mercenaries, such as the Sherden swordsmen. These warriors were likely from the Aegean area, wearing banded leather or metal armor, shields and horned helmets, using long bronze swords in battle. (Many historians believe the Sherden were the first wave of the “Sea Peoples” who attacked Egypt and eventually settled on the coast of Palestine as the Philistines.) The adoption of the light two-horse chariot gave Egyptian armies a punch that they did not previously possess. These light chariots could travel at a speed of up to 24 miles per hour, and were still very maneuverable. An Egyptian army could now field hundreds, even thousands, of these two-man battle platforms, used to soften up an enemy before the infantry came to blows. The chariots would also fight enemy charioteers, and would likely be used in the pursuit of a routing foe after the battle. Most of these units would have swift-footed “chariot runners,” men trained to run alongside the chariots to provide some flank security, as well as skirmish with the enemy. The main punch from the chariots was provided by the composite bow-armed soldier. The composite bow was constructed of wood, animal horn and sinew, constructed in a precise manner. This allowed the bow to shoot arrows up to 550 or more yards. Imagine these large numbers of chariots peppering an enemy with clouds of arrows prior to contact with spearmen or axemen. The Hittite army was similar to the Egyptian New Kingdom force in most respects. It employed either Anatolian or Syrian bowmen or javelinmen as skirmishers. Units of spearmen and/or sickle swordsmen (again, probably bronze weapons) possibly wearing some form of banded leather or metal armor were also utilized. The biggest difference between the Egyptians and the Hittites were in the types of chariots each nation used. Some Hittite forces used Anatolian light, two-man chariots similar but different from the Egyptian models. These Hittite chariots held a driver and spearman, and primarily got up close and personal with enemy infantry. They also used a Syrian light chariot called a Maryannu, which also carried two men, but the fighter was armed with a bow and skirmished more at a distance. In addition, the Hittites used a heavier, three-man chariot, not as maneuverable as the Egyptian or the Maryannu versions. Besides the driver, the passengers were either two spearmen or a spearman and a shield-bearer. The driver would apparently wear no armor, while his passengers would wear some lamellar or banded leather or metal protection. The horses would often have leather armor as well. The Hittites used their chariots in mass formation as a shock force to break the enemy's infantry lines, after which the chariots, joined by the infantry, would exploit the resulting confusion to rout the enemy force. The Battle Dispositions [The main sources for this battle were inscriptions on the walls of Ramesses’ temples in Abydos,Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel, glorifying the battle at Kadesh as a great victory for Egypt. Examined more rationally, this is only half-true. Some inscriptions among the Hittites also give a different perspective.] Ramesses mustered a force of about 20,000 men, divided into 4 divisions, each bearing a name of one of the Egyptian gods: Amun, Ra, Sutekh (or Set) and Ptah. Also mentioned is a force labeled “Nearin,” which is thought to have been Canaanite auxiliaries being used as garrison troops occupying the city of Amurru. The exact composition of each division is very conjectural, though it is thought that each Egyptian division had a force of 500 chariots, giving the Egyptians approximately 2000 chariots. Each division likely had spearmen, archers and other footmen. The Amun division was also accompanied by the Pharaoh’s personal bodyguard, which probably included the Sherden mercenaries. Ramesses was about 25 years old at this time, full of self-confidence bordering on arrogance. The Hittite army was probably much larger than the Egyptian force, possibly on the order of 50,000 men or more. One area where the Hittites enjoyed a massive advantage was its chariotry. An estimated 3700 heavy three-man chariots were deployed by Muwatallis, the Hittite king and army commander. The balance of his army probably numbered around 40,000 infantry, most of them from vassal states in Anatolia and Syria. Muwatallis was likely in his 40’s or early 50’s, having ruled his empire for about 20 years, and was a seasoned campaigner. He probably thought he had the arrogant Ramesses just where he wanted him… The city of Kadesh was located on the Orontes River, with the Forest of Robaui to its south and west. Just to the west of the city is the Beqaa Valley, a major travel route between Palestine and Syria, often used by invading armies throughout antiquity. The Battle The Egyptian army was traveling through the Beqaa Valley, each division widely separated from the other (a major tactical error on Ramesses’ part). About seven miles south of Kadesh, Egyptian scouts brought before the pharaoh two local nomads. These men claimed to be loyal Egyptian vassals, and told Ramesses what he wanted to hear: the Hittite main army was over 120 miles to the north, because they were afraid to attack the mighty Ramesses. Unfortunately, Ramesses fell victim to Hittite subterfuge; these men were giving the Egyptians “disinformation.” The main enemy army was actually across the Orontes River near the city of Kadesh, biding its time. In a hurry to besiege Kadesh, Ramesses pushed the Amun division and his bodyguard forward, arriving at a level plain west of the city in the early afternoon. The Egyptian force then made camp at this spot (apparently not noticing that it had been used for a campsite by the Hittites the day before). At about 2:30 in the afternoon, Egyptian scouts brought in two prisoners. After identifying themselves as Hittites, Ramesses ordered the two men to be beaten and questioned closely. As a result, the truth of Ramesses’ position finally emerged. The latest prisoners revealed that the main Hittite force was nearby, and was approaching rapidly. According to the Egyptian temple wall inscriptions, the Hittite prisoners said: Lo, the king of Hatti [the Hittites] has already arrived, together with the many countries who are supporting him... They are armed with their infantry and their chariots. They have their weapons of war at the ready. They are more numerous than the grains of sand on the beach. Behold, they stand equipped and ready for battle behind the old city of Kadesh. At hearing this new intelligence, Ramesses began berating his commanders for not putting out scouts to confirm the location of the Hittite host. In addition, he sent messengers to his other three divisions and his Nearin auxiliaries, urging them to come quickly to his aid. Ramesses even sent his vizier to personally bring the nearest Egyptian force, the Ra division, to the camp as quickly as possible. However, as the messengers rode off on their missions, the Hittite hammer-blow struck. Muwatallis sent the majority of his heavy chariots, some 2000 of them, across the Orontes and through the Robaui forest, where they struck the Ra division while it was still marching to the Egyptian camp. The suddenness of the enemy attack dispersed the Ra division, nearly annihilating it in a few minutes. Groups of the division scattered in several directions, but one large contingent headed for Ramesses’ camp, closely pursued by the Hittite chariots. The Hittites burst upon the Egyptian camp, crashing through the perimeter of shields and into the tents. The soldiers of the Amun division were thrown into confusion, some fleeing in terror from the Hittite onslaught. Nonetheless, the momentum of the Hittite attack was waning, with the obstacles of the large camp hindering the heavy chariots. As the Hittite force tried to regroup, individual Egyptians began forming groups of resistance, taking down the horses and men of the attacking chariots and putting up resistance to the Hittite attack. Seeing his army being destroyed before his eyes, Ramesses took matters into his own hands. If we can believe his own grandiose propaganda, the pharaoh mounted his own chariot alone (??), grabbed his composite bow, and prayed to his gods for their help in overcoming his foe. “…No officer was with me, no charioteer, no soldier of the army, no shield-bearer…” he claimed. More likely, he gathered about him his personal bodyguard, chariots of the Amun division and remnants of the Ra division and began to make assaults against the overextended Hittite forces. In addition, many of the Hittites believed they had already won the battle and were looting the Egyptian camp. Ramesses and his force apparently rode around the entire perimeter of his camp, launching attacks of opportunity. At some point, the Nearin force arrived on the battlefield, causing Hittite forces on the western side of the Egyptian camp to flee. Finally, Ramesses rallied his forces to make one final attack on the Hittites on the eastern side of the Egyptian camp, breaking the will of the enemy and sending them in a disordered retreat. Ramesses and his men pursued the Hittites to the banks of the Orontes, forcing them across the swift-flowing river. However, as the Egyptians harassed the retreating first-strike Hittite force, another group of 1000 heavy chariots – sent by Muwatallis to help mop-up the Egyptians and containing many Hittite nobility – began crossing the Orontes. Apparently thinking that he had the battle won, Muwatallis stayed on the eastern side of the Orontes with his entire infantry force. As the Hittite chariots crossed the Orontes, Ramses decided to change tactics. Instead of maintaining his distance, Ramses decided to close with the enemy, a tactic that seemingly favored the Hittites. Actually, Ramses wanted to use the terrain as his ally. The Hittite heavy chariots had to cross the Orontes and climb the riverbank to reach the plain where the Egyptians were. The Hittite chariots were most effective at battle speed. Ramses wanted to close with them before they could get up to speed. Also, by fighting them close to the river, he kept the Hittites from deploying into battle formation. By attacking the Hittites in this fashion, Ramses' flanks were protected and allowed him to fight only a fraction of the Hittite force at one time. The Hittites, realizing what Ramesses had up his sleeve, launched five separate attacks on the Egyptian force. Muwatallis continued throwing his chariots across the river, but Ramesses ordered his chariots forward to thwart them. Finally, at around 7 p.m., Ramesses personally led a final attack on the Hittite chariots. Thrown back a final time, the Hittites then noticed a new threat: the long-absent Division of Ptah was emerging from the Forest of Robaui, threatening the rear of the Hittite army. With sunset less than an hour away, the last remnants of the Hittites retreated, many abandoning their chariots and attempting to swim the Orontes, “hurried as fast as crocodiles swimming” according to Ramesses’ temple inscriptions. The battle of Kadesh was over, taking total of three hours. Casualties were not given and most historians have not ventured any opinion. However, over 2000 of the Hittites’ chariots were destroyed or captured, with most of their crews likely killed or taken prisoner. The Egyptian Amun and Ra divisions likely suffered heavy casualties. However, the Hittite army was still an effective force, with over 1000 chariots and nearly 40,000 infantry at the command of Muwatallis. Probably realizing his predicament, Ramesses gathered his forces, pulled back to Damascus and declared himself victorious. Within the year, Amurru revolted and returned to the Hittite orbit. Footnote #1: About 16 years after the battle of Kadesh, Hittite and Egyptian officials met in Kadesh for a summit conference. A peace treaty was established, evidence of which exists to this day. A clay tablet in Akkadian cuneiform was excavated in Turkey. The original hangs in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, and a copy hangs on a wall at the United Nations headquarters, the earliest known international peace treaty. An Egyptian papyrus was also excavated, and the terms of the treaty were carved into the walls of a temple in Karnak. Footnote #2: Ramesses continued to rule Egypt after Kadesh, his reign extending for 67 years. He died in 1213 BC, approximately 90 or 91 years old. He also had 200 wives and concubines, as well as 96 sons and 60 daughters. Probably for his military campaigns and many monumental building projects, he was named “Ramesses the Great.” He was buried in the Valley of the Kings, and his mummy is now on display at the Cairo Museum. Footnote #3: In 1974, Egyptologists noticed that Ramesses’ mummy was deteriorating rapidly. It was flown to Paris for diagnosis and examination. The mummy was issued an Egyptian passport – his occupation was listed as “King (deceased)” – and was met at Paris’ Le Bourget airport with the full military honors befitting a king. A fungal infection was discovered and treated. Also, it was discovered that Ramesses had several old battle wounds, suffered from arthritis and poor circulation in his later years, had a major tooth abscess and was a redhead. Footnote #4: Ramesses has been traditionally marked as the pharaoh of the biblical Exodus, but no hard archaeological evidence confirms this. He was portrayed by the late Yul Brynner in the 1956 film, “The Ten Commandments.” [“So shall it be written; so shall it be done!”] In the 1998 animated film “Prince of Egypt,” Ramesses is voiced by Ralph Fiennes. Footnote #5: Mothax would never forgive me if I did not mention the following: English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley composed the poem “Ozymandias,” published in 1818, with Ramesses the Great in mind. I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand, Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed. And on the pedestal these words appear: "My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!" Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away